Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria are the workhorses of recombinant DNA technology. The ability of bacteria to easily exchange and absorb new pieces of DNA made them good vehicles for genetic engineering techniques.

The Food and Drug Administration approved Protropin, human growth hormone made using genetically modified bacteria, for therapeutic use in 1985.

In this illustration the sequences of colored balls represent the steps in a complex chemical process for building insulin molecules. Although this achievement was important for research, the process was not feasible for commercial insulin production.

The pituitary gland, the size of a chickpea, situated in the center of the brain, secretes nine different hormones, one of which regulates human growth.

A young man featured in Life magazine in 1966 gained 15 inches with the help of growth hormone injections. Although the extracted hormone was available for therapeutic use by the late 1950s, its availability was severely restricted by the limited supply of human glands.

Diagram of glands and organs used for making pharmaceutical preparations.

These tubes contained samples of bacterial DNA which had been genetically modified to contain the human insulin gene. Researchers used the DNA in the original experiments to produce human insulin from recombinant bacteria.

These bottles contain medicines made from the pituitary glands of cattle. Although these tablets and powders were widely available, they were not effective. Any hormones present were destroyed by the human digestive system before they could work. In the 1940s, researchers isolated pure growth hormone from cattle glands. This hormone could be injected, but due to differences between species, bovine hormone was not effective for human use.

Following the success of human growth hormone (hGH), researchers developed a recombinant bovine (cow) growth hormone, which became available in 1994. The drug did not treat a disorder in cattle, but instead drug companies marketed the substance to dairy farmers to increase milk production.

Penicillin research and production are depicted in this painting by Robert A. Thom, commissioned by Parke, Davis & Company as part of their “Great Moments in Pharmacy” advertising campaign in the 1950s.

Advertising played a role in establishing the image of penicillin as the wonder drug.

“Growing in a liquid medium, this mold gives out golden droplets rich in penicillin—but the liquid must be concentrated over 30,000 times to obtain pure penicillin.”

Six “Penicillin Girls” nurtured the growing mold and harvested the penicillin from the hundreds of culture vessels at the manufacturing operation established at Oxford University in 1940.

Unable to establish large–scale commercial production, the British turned to the United States in 1942. More than twenty American drug companies joined the U.S. government’s penicillin production effort. Industrial fermentation tanks replaced small vessel production and by 1944 penicillin supplies met military needs.

Soil, naturally rich in microbial life, became an important source for antibiotic discovery. The Pfizer company alone tested over 100,000 soil samples from around the world, as drug companies competed to develop new products. This envelope of soil, from a cornfield in the Midwest, yielded a winning microbe and led to a successful new antibiotic named Terramycin.

The Parke Davis company tested thousands of soil samples each year for new microorganisms. Advertisements in popular magazines highlighted the enormous research effort required to produce one or two useful products.

New penicillins, such as ampicillin (brand name Polycillin) developed in the 1960s, were effective for treating many common infections. Oral formulas made taking the medicine more convenient. Doctors and patients came to rely on antibiotics even in uncertain diagnoses.

A piglet thrives on a formula of artificial milk and Terramycin, an antibiotic, developed to accelerate growth in animals.

Meat production and consumption expanded rapidly along with the prospering American economy in the years following World War II. This advertisement from the American Meat Institute emphasizes the benefits of meat for human health, the economy, and soil conservation.

This tube was used to immobilize guinea pigs during inoculations. Injections of toxins and serums were administered through the cut–out window. Although their role was less publicized, small mammals, such as the guinea pig, were essential to the serum manufacturing process.

Animal Record Card for a guinea pig used in serum and toxin testing. Pig No. 1567 is identified by a rough sketch of its color markings.

The thoroughbred horse “First Flight” was used to produce serum for botulinum toxin, the deadly bacterial poison often spread through foods. He produced the antitoxin for the U.S. Army from 1978–1993.

“Old Faithful,” was a horse that produced antitoxins for the city of New York in the early twentieth century. A few of the individual horses used for serum production were celebrated for their service to humankind.

In the 1890s the New York City Department of Health kept a logbook of the horses used for antitoxin production. The entries for each animal provide a record of toxin injections and bleedings, the amount of blood collected and serum produced, and the animal’s death.

The closed fermentation tank prevented air–borne bacteria from entering and spoiling the brew.

Pasteur’s work is celebrated as laying the foundation for the science of bacteriology. His investigations on the behalf of French industry established tools and techniques necessary for controlling the productive and destructive power of microorganisms.

Bacterial filters were an essential tool for securing a supply of uncontaminated water and for purifying products in industrial applications. This porcelain filter, developed in Pasteur’s laboratory, had tiny pores that allowed fluids to pass through while holding back bacteria and other microorganisms.

Pasteur used special tools and methods for studying the activity of microorganisms in the brewing process. Flasks with long curved necks allowed oxygen to get in while keeping unwanted microbes out. Improvements in microscope lenses made the identification of different microorganisms possible.

An illustration in Pasteur’s book shows what healthy and worn–out yeast cells look like when viewed through the microscope.

These culture tubes were used to grow microbes for identification. They contain a special preparation of nutrients in a jelly–like base. A sterile instrument like the swab was used to transfer the test substance to the tube.

Lactic–acid bacteria, a major cause of spoilage in the brewing process, are shown growing on a variety of culture media.

Brewing handbooks described the tools and techniques needed for the study of yeasts and bacteria encountered in the brewing process.

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